A dress (also known as a frock or a gown) is a one-piece outer garment that is worn on the torso and hangs down over the legs and is primarily worn by women or girls.[1][2] Dresses often consist of a bodice attached to a skirt.
Dress shapes and silhouettes, textiles, and colors vary. Dresses can have sleeves of any length or can be sleeveless, and dresses can have any neckline. Similarly, dresses can have skirts of any length or hemline. These variances may be based on considerations such as fashion trends, modesty, weather, and personal taste.[3] Dresses are generally suitable for both formal wear and casual wear in the West.[4]
In the 11th century, women in Europe wore loose garments that were similar in shape to the tunics worn by men.[7] Sleeves varied in fit and length, and hemlines fell below the knees, most often reaching the ankle or ground.[7] These dresses were worn over ankle-length chemise garments.[7] As the century progressed, these dresses featured a tighter fit on the arms and upper body.[7] The tighter fit was achieved by making slits to the waist and in the sleeves that were laced closed to fit the figure. [8] Laces were gradually replaced by buttons. [8] By the end of the 11th century, sleeves widened with cuffs sometimes reaching several feet in circumference.[8] This style remained popular into the 13th century, although the sleeves once again became more fitted.[8]
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a similar dress known as a cote-hardie came into fashion.[9][10] This garment was closed down the front of the bodice with buttons that extended to the hip; this resulted in a dress that was more fitted through the hip rather than just to the waist.[9] These dresses also often featured decorative elements such as long strips of cloth around the elbow known as tippets.[9]
In the 15th century, houppelandes and gowns became popular. Houppelandes were full-cut, floor-length dresses with high collars and full sleeves.[11] Gowns were also long dresses, but they had open necklines, a closer-fitted bodice, and sleeves that became more fitted as the century progressed. [12] Both houppelandes and gowns were often belted just below the bust.[12]
European dresses in at the start of the 16th century resembled those of the previous century: full-cut, belted gowns with large sleeve openings worn over a kirtle or petticoat and chemise.[13] Decorative treatments such as pinking, slashing, and blackwork embroidery became increasingly common.[14][15] Necklines were initially low and broad, but wearers began to fill in the open space with high collared chemises or partlets.[16] Although the overall style of dress was fairly consistent across the continent, there were regional differences often involving sleeve shape and decorative elements.[17] European courts, such as Tudor court and the wives of Henry VIII, were influential in European fashion.[17] From the 1540s, the bodices of dresses were stiffened, flattening the wearer’s chest, and skirts were shaped with a Spanish farthingale.[18] The resulting silhouette resembled two triangles.[18]
Wheel farthingale silhouette
From the 1550s, middle- and upper-class European women could choose between the still popular rigid farthingale style or a looser-style gown known as a ropa.[19][20] The ropa style of dress was known by different names throughout Europe, including sumarra (Italy), marlotte (France), and vlieger (Holland).[19] Fashionable sleeves were often more fitted with puffs at the shoulder.[21] From the 1570s, dress became even more highly decorated, exaggerated, and rigid.[22][23] The previously popular conical skirt shape achieved with a Spanish farthingale was replaced by the wider, more conical wheel farthingale.[23] Under Queen Elizabeth, sumptuary laws dictated people of different social rank were allowed to wear.[23][24]
Women’s dresses in Russia during the 16th and 17th centuries identified the wearer’s place in society or their family.[25]
Holland, as a center of textile production, was a particularly noted area of innovation in dress fashion during the 17th Century.[26] In Spain and Portugal, women wore stomachers[26] while in England and France, dresses became more “naturally” shaped.[26] Lace and slashing were popular decorations.[26] Skirts were full, with regular folds and the overskirt allowed the display of an underskirt of contrasting fabric.[26] Necklines became lower as well.[26] Embroidery that reflected scientific discoveries, such as newly discovered animals and plants were popular.[27] In the British Colonies, multi-piece dresses were also popular, though less luxurious.[28] Wealthy women living in the Spanish or Dutch colonies in the Americas copied the fashions that were popular from their homelands.[29]
The three-piece dress, which had a bodice, petticoat and gown, was popular until the last 25 years of the century, in which the mantua, or a one-piece gown, became more popular.[30]Corsets became more important in dresses by the 1680s.[31]
Working women, and women in slavery in the Americas, used simple patterns to create shifts, wool or linen petticoats and gowns and cotton dresses.[32] The bottoms of the skirts could be tucked into the waistband when a woman was near a cooking or heating fire.[32]
Large, triangular silhouettes were favored during the 18th century, skirts were wide and supported by hoop underskirts.[33][34] One-piece gowns remained popular until the middle of the century.[35] During the 1760s in France, hoop petticoats were reduced in size.[36] Lighter colors and lighter fabrics were also favored.[37] In Colonial America, women most often wore a gown and petticoat, in which the skirt of the gown opened to reveal the petticoat underneath.[38] Women also had riding habits which consisted of the petticoat, jacket and a waistcoat.[38]
French fashion regarding dresses became very fast-changing during the later part of the 18th century.[39] Throughout this period, the length of fashionable dresses varied only slightly, between ankle-length and floor-sweeping.[3] Between 1740 and 1770, the robe à la française was very popular with upper-class women.[40] In France, the Empire style became popular after the French Revolution.[41] This simpler style was also favored by Josephine Bonaparte,[41] wife of Napoleon. Other popular styles during the revolution included tunic dresses and the negligée à la patriot, which featured the red, white and blue colors of the flag.[42]
Women’s dresses in the 19th century began to be classified by the time of day or purpose of the dress.[43] High-waisted dresses were popular until around 1830.[43]
Early nineteenth century dresses in Russia were influenced by Classicism and were made of thin fabrics, with some semi-transparent.[44]Elizabeth Vigée Le Brun wore these types of dresses with a short skirt (reaching to her ankles) when she lived in Russia between 1785 and 1801[44] and many Russian women copied her style.[44] By the 1840s, Russian women were turning to what was in fashion in Europe.[45]
Europeans styles in dresses increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s,[46] then fullness was draped and drawn to the back.[47] Dresses had a “day” bodice with a high neckline and long sleeves, and an “evening” bodice with a low neckline (decollete) and very short sleeves. In Russia, metal hoopskirts were known as “malakhovs.”[45] Skirts of the 1860s were heavily decorated.[47]
To sleep, women in the American West wore floor-length dresses of white cotton with high collars displaying decoration.[48] Various Native American people, such as the Navajo and the Mescalero Apache began to adapt the designs of their dresses to look more like the European Americans they came in contact with.[49] Navajo women further adapted the European designs, incorporating their own sense of beauty, “creating hózhó.”[50]
Paper sewing patterns for women to sew their own dresses started to be readily available in the 1860s, when the Butterick Publishing Company began to promote them.[51] These patterns were graded by size, which was a new innovation.[52]
The Victorian era’s dresses were tight-fitting and decorated with pleats, rouching and frills.[41] Women in the United States who were involved in dress reform in the 1850s found themselves the center of attention, both positive and negative.[53] By 1881, the Rational Dress Society had formed in reaction to the restrictive dress of the era.[41]
In the early twentieth century, the look popularized by the Gibson Girl was fashionable.[54] The upper part of women’s dresses in the Edwardian era included a “pigeon breast” look that gave way to a corseted waist and an s-shaped silhouette.[54] Women called their dresses “waists” if one-piece, or “shirtwaists,” if it consisted of a skirt and a blouse.[55] The bodice of the dresses had a boned lining.[55] Informally, wealthy women wore tea gowns at home.[56] These garments were looser, though not as loose as a “wrapper,” and made of expensive fabric and laces.[56]
By 1910, the Edwardian look was replaced with a straighter silhouette.[57] French designer, Paul Poiret, had a huge impact on the look of the time.[57] Designs developed by Poiret were available in both boutiques and also in department stores.[58] Popular dresses of the time were one-piece and included lingerie dresses which could be layered.[59] At around the same time, in the United States, the American Ladies Tailors’ Association developed a dress called the suffragette suit, which was practical for women to work and move around in.[60][61] Another innovation of the 1910s was the ready availability of factory-made clothing.[62]
Waistlines started out high and by 1915 were below the natural waist.[59] By 1920, waistlines were at hip-level.[59] Between 1910 and 1920 necklines were lower and dresses could be short-sleeved or sleeveless.[63] Women who worked during World War I preferred shorter dresses, which eventually became the dominant style overall.[37] In addition to the shorter dresses, waistlines were looser and the dominant colors were black, white and gray.[64]
By 1920, the “new woman” was a trend that saw lighter fabrics and dresses that were easier to put on.[65] Younger women were also setting the trends that older women started to follow.[65] The dresses of the 1920s could be pulled over the head and were short and straight.[66] It was acceptable to wear sleeveless dresses during the day.[66]Flapper dresses were popular until end of the decade.[67]
During World War II, dresses were slimmer and inspired by military uniforms.[41] After WWII, the New Look, promoted by Christian Dior was very influential on fashion and the look of women’s dresses for about a decade.[68]
Since the 1970s, no one dress type or length has dominated fashion for long, with short and ankle-length styles often appearing side by side in fashion magazines and catalogs.[69]
In most varieties of formaldress codes in Western cultures, a dress of an appropriate style is mandatory for women. They are also very popular for special occasions such as proms or weddings.[70] For such occasions they, together with blouse and skirt, remain the de facto standard attire for many girls and women.
In western countries, a “formal” or white tie dress code typically means tailcoats for men and full-length evening dresses with opera-length gloves for women. A most formal dress for women are full-length ball or evening gowns with evening gloves. Some white tie functions also request that the women wear long gloves past the elbow.
A basic dress is a usually dark-colored dress of simple design which can be worn with various accessories to suit different occasions.[71] Different kinds of jewelry, belts, scarves, and jackets can be worn with the basic dress to dress up or down.[72] A little black dress is an example of a basic dress.
A bodycon dress is a tight figure-hugging dress, often made from stretchy material.[73] The name derives from “body confidence”[74] or, originally, “body conscious”, transformed into Japanese in the 1980s as “bodikon”.
Clothing (also known as clothes, garments, dress, apparel, or attire) is any item worn on the body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles, but over time it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural products found in the environment, put together. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on gender, body type, social factors, and geographic considerations. Garments cover the body, footwear covers the feet, gloves cover the hands, while hats and headgear cover the head, and underwear covers the private parts.
Clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements, rough surfaces, sharp stones, rash-causing plants, and insect bites, by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothing can insulate against cold or hot conditions, and it can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. It can protect feet from injury and discomfort or facilitate navigation in varied environments. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation. It may be used to prevent glare or increase visual acuity in harsh environments, such as brimmed hats. Clothing is used for protection against injury in specific tasks and occupations, sports, and warfare. Fashioned with pockets, belts, or loops, clothing may provide a means to carry things while freeing the hands.
Clothing has significant social factors as well. Wearing clothes is a variable social norm. It may connote modesty. Being deprived of clothing in front of others may be embarrassing. In many parts of the world, not wearing clothes in public so that genitals, breast, or buttocks are visible could be considered indecent exposure. Pubic area or genital coverage is the most frequently encountered minimum found cross-culturally and regardless of climate, implying social convention as the basis of customs. Clothing also may be used to communicate social status, wealth, group identity, and individualism.
Some forms of personal protective equipment amount to clothing, such as coveralls, chaps or a doctor’s white coat, with similar requirements for maintenance and cleaning as other textiles (boxing gloves function both as protective equipment and as a sparringweapon, so the equipment aspect rises above the glove aspect). More specialized forms of protective equipment, such as face shields are classified as protective accessories. At the far extreme, self-enclosing diving suits or space suits are form-fitting body covers, and amount to a form of dress, without being clothing per se, while containing enough high technology to amount to more of a tool than a garment. This line will continue to blur as wearable technology embeds assistive devices directly into the fabric itself; the enabling innovations are ultra low power consumption and flexible electronic substrates.
Estimates of when humans began wearing clothes vary from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago, but recent studies suggest humans were wearing clothing at least 100,000 years ago. Recent studies by Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking—anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology—have attempted to constrain the most recent date of the introduction of clothing with an indirect method relying on lice. The rationale for this method of dating stems from the fact that the human body louse cannot live outside of clothing, dying after only a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse’s speciation from its parent, Pediculus humanus, can have taken place no earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse (P. humanus corporis) diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (P. humanus capitis), can be determined by the number of mutations each has developed during the intervening time. Such mutations occur at a known rate and the date of last-common-ancestor for two species can therefore be estimated from their frequency. These studies have produced dates for speciation ranging from 40,000 to 170,000 years before present, with the most likely estimates being roughly 107,000 years ago.[1]
Kittler, Kayser and Stoneking suggest that the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, which is thought to have begun between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago. A second group of researchers, also relying on the genetic clock, estimate that clothing originated between 30,000 and 114,000 years ago.[2]
Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those of lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco.[3][4]
The development of clothing is deeply connected to human evolution, with early garments likely consisting of animal skins and natural fibers adapted for protection and social signaling.[5] According to anthropologists and archaeologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that was draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, as clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared with stone, bone, shell, and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988,[6] and in 2016 a needle at least 50,000 years old from Denisova Cave in Siberia[7] made by Denisovans. Dyed flax fibers that date back to 34,000 BC and could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia.[8][9]
Several distinct human cultures, including those residing in the Arctic Circle, have historically crafted their garments exclusively from treated and adorned animal furs and skins. In contrast, numerous other societies have complemented or substituted leather and skins with textiles woven, knitted, or twined from a diverse array of animal and plant fibers, such as wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie.
Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized – with the powered loom – during the Industrial Revolution.
Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt, and the Javanese sarong. The clothes may be tied up (dhoti and sari) or implement pins or belts to hold the garments in place (kilt and sarong). The cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment.
Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to the wearer’s measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form-fitting clothing. If the fabric is expensive, the tailor tries to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing; perhaps cutting triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and adding them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for shirts and chemises take this approach. These remnants can also be reused to make patchwork pockets, hats, vests, and skirts.
Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; domestic sewers may turn them into quilts.
In the thousands of years that humans have been making clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photographs, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history can inspire current fashion designers, as well as costumiers for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.
Comfort is related to various perceptions, physiological, social, and psychological needs, and after food, it is clothing that satisfies these comfort needs. Clothing provides aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort.[10]Aesthetic comfortVisual perception is influenced by color, fabric construction, style, garment fit, fashion compatibility, and finish of clothing material. Aesthetic comfort is necessary for psychological and social comfort.[11][12][13]Thermoregulation and thermophysiological comfortThermophysiological comfort is the capacity of the clothing material that makes the balance of moisture and heat between the body and the environment. It is a property of textile materials that creates ease by maintaining moisture and thermal levels in a human’s resting and active states. The selection of textile material significantly affects the comfort of the wearer. Different textile fibers have unique properties that make them suitable for use in various environments. Natural fibers are breathable and absorb moisture, and synthetic fibers are hydrophobic; they repel moisture and do not allow air to pass. Different environments demand a diverse selection of clothing materials. Hence, the appropriate choice is important.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20] The major determinants that influence thermophysiological comfort are permeable construction, heat, and moisture transfer rate.[21]Thermal comfortOne primary criterion for our physiological needs is thermal comfort. The heat dissipation effectiveness of clothing gives the wearer a neither very hot nor very cold feel. The optimum temperature for thermal comfort of the skin surface is between 28 and 30 °C (82 and 86 °F), i.e., a neutral temperature. Thermophysiology reacts whenever the temperature falls below or exceeds the neutral point on either side; it is discomforting below 28 and above 30 degrees.[22] Clothing maintains a thermal balance; it keeps the skin dry and cool. It helps to keep the body from overheating while avoiding heat from the environment.[22][23]Moisture comfortMoisture comfort is the prevention of a damp sensation. According to Hollies’ research, it feels uncomfortable when more than “50% to 65% of the body is wet.”[This quote needs a citation]Tactile comfortTactile comfort is a resistance to the discomfort related to the friction created by clothing against the body. It is related to the smoothness, roughness, softness, and stiffness of the fabric used in clothing. The degree of tactile discomfort may vary between individuals, which is possible due to various factors including allergies, tickling, prickling, skin abrasion, coolness, and the fabric’s weight, structure, and thickness. There are specific surface finishes (mechanical and chemical) that can enhance tactile comfort. Fleece sweatshirts and velvet clothing, for example. Soft, clingy, stiff, heavy, light, hard, sticky, scratchy, prickly are all terms used to describe tactile sensations.[24][25][26][27]Pressure comfortThe comfort of the human body’s pressure receptors’ (present in the skin) sensory response towards clothing. Fabric with lycra feels more comfortable because of this response and superior pressure comfort. The sensation response is influenced by the material’s structure: snugging, looseness, heavy, light, soft, or stiff structuring.[28][29][30]
The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. It serves to prevent wind damage and provides protection from sunburn. In the cold, it offers thermal insulation. Shelter can reduce the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing generally are worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones. Boots, hats, jackets, ponchos, and coats designed to protect from rain and snow are specialized clothing items.
Clothing has been made from a wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn normally are considered accessories rather than clothing (such as Handbags), items worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or items that do not serve a protective function. For instance, corrective eyeglasses, Arctic goggles, and sunglasses would not be considered an accessory because of their protective functions.
Clothing protects against many things that might injure or irritate the naked human body, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. Garments that are too sheer, thin, small, or tight offer less protection. Appropriate clothes can also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific hazards, such as insects, toxic chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances.
Humans have devised clothing solutions to environmental or other hazards: such as space suits, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. The distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value, and clothes designed for function often have corporate fashion in their design.
The choice of clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure appropriate clothing due to poverty or affordability, or lack of inclination, sometimes is said to be worn, ragged, or shabby.[31]
Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational, gender differentiation, and social status.[32] In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.
Serious books on clothing and its functions appear from the nineteenth century as European colonial powers interacted with new environments such as tropical ones in Asia.[33] Some scientific research into the multiple functions of clothing in the first half of the twentieth century, with publications such as J.C. Flügel‘s Psychology of Clothes in 1930,[32] and Newburgh’s seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949.[34] By 1968, the field of Environmental Physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little.[35] There has since been considerable research, and the knowledge base has grown significantly, but the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed, Newburgh’s book continues to be cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.[5]
Clothing of the Napir Asu held in Louvre museum, c. 1300 BC
Clothing reveals much about human history. According to Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College, garments preserved in collections are resources for study similar to books and paintings.[36] Scholars around the world have studied a wide range of clothing topics, including the history of specific items of clothing,[37][38] clothing styles in different cultural groups,[39] and the business of clothing and fashion.[40] The textile curator Linda Baumgarten writes that “clothing provides a remarkable picture of the daily lives, beliefs, expectations, and hopes of those who lived in the past.[41]
Clothing presents a number of challenges to historians. Clothing made of textiles or skins is subject to decay, and the erosion of physical integrity may be seen as a loss of cultural information.[42] Costume collections often focus on important pieces of clothing considered unique or otherwise significant, limiting the opportunities scholars have to study everyday clothing.[36]
3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional Scottish kilt (1984)
In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types.
In contemporary Western societies, skirts, dresses, and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women’s clothing, while neckties usually are seen as men’s clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men’s clothing, but nowadays are worn by both genders. Men’s clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically, men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men’s skirts such as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In previous times, such garments often were worn as normal daily clothing by men.
In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire, usually hijab. What items required varies in different Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from the head-scarf to the burqa.
Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-shirts, have started out as menswear, but some articles, such as the fedora, originally were a style for women.
Alim Khan‘s bemedaled robe conveys a social message about his wealth, status, and power.
During the early modern period, individuals utilized their attire as a significant method of conveying and asserting their social status. Individuals employed the utilization of high-quality fabrics and trendy designs as a means of communicating their wealth and social standing, as well as an indication of their knowledge and understanding of current fashion trends to the general public. As a result, clothing played a significant role in making the social hierarchy perceptible to all members of society.[44]
In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.
Some religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may be worn every day as a marker for special religious status. Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion.
In some religions such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism the cleanliness of religious dresses is of paramount importance and considered to indicate purity. Jewish ritual requires rending (tearing) of one’s upper garment as a sign of mourning. The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: “…They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them” (chapter 2:187). Christian clergy members wear religious vestments during liturgical services and may wear specific non-liturgical clothing at other times.
Clothing appears in numerous contexts in the Bible. The most prominent passages are: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves, Joseph‘s coat of many colors, and the clothing of Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple in Jerusalem had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death.
The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has changed the definition of what is “stylish”. In the latter half of the twentieth century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally demand formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market.
Jacket by Guy Laroche, from a woman’s suit with a black skirt and blouse (1960)
In the Western dress code, jeans are worn by both men and women. There are several unique styles of jeans found that include: high rise jeans, mid rise jeans, low rise jeans, bootcut jeans, straight jeans, cropped jeans, skinny jeans, cuffed jeans, boyfriend jeans, and capri jeans.
The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers such as Pierre Cardin, Yves Saint Laurent, and Guy Laroche in the 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular include Marc Jacobs and Gucci, named for Marc Jacobs Guccio Gucci respectively.
By the early years of the twenty-first century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has been perpetuated over the centuries, spreading Western culture and styles, most recently as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Also, donated used clothing from Western countries is delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.
People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, such as weddings and cultural holidays. Also, items of Western dress may be worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.
For practical, comfort or safety reasons, most sports and physical activities are practised wearing special clothing. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving, or surfing), salopettes (for skiing), and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials often are used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track and field, dance, gymnastics, and swimming.
Fashion shows often are the source of the latest trends in clothing/ fashions. Photograph of a model in a modern gown reflecting the current fashion trend at an Haute couture fashion show
Paris set the 1900–1940 fashion trends for Europe and North America.[45] In the 1920s the goal was all about getting loose. Women wore dresses all day, every day. Day dresses had a drop waist, which was a sash or belt around the low waist or hip and a skirt that hung anywhere from the ankle on up to the knee, never above. Day wear had sleeves (long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleated, hank hemmed, or tiered. Jewelry was not conspicuous.[46] Hair was often bobbed, giving a boyish look.[47]
In the early twenty-first century a diverse range of styles exists in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, economic conditions, and ranging from expensive haute couture, to traditional garb, to thrift storegrunge. Fashion shows are events for designers to show off new and often extravagant designs.
Garments factory in BangladeshSafety garb for women was designed to prevent occupational accidents among war workers, Los Angeles display (c. 1943).
Although mechanization transformed most aspects of human clothing industry, by the mid-twentieth century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Often, mass-produced clothing is made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions.[48]
Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.[49] Although many countries recognize treaties such as the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.
The production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations, providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to millions of people.[50]
The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. Currently, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection, in developed countries it is associated with expensive, designer clothing.[51][52] Once uncontroversial, recently it has been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA and other animal and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.
Real fur in fashion is contentious, with Copenhagen (2022)[53] and London (2018)[54] fashion weeks banning real fur in its runway shows following protests and government attention to the issue. Fashion houses such as Gucci and Chanel have banned the use of fur in its garments.[55]Versace and Furla also stopped using fur in their collections in early 2018. In 2020, the outdoor brand Canada Goose announced it would discontinue the use of new coyote fur on parka trims following protests.[56]
Governing bodies have issued legislation banning the sale of new real fur garments. In 2021, Israel was the first government to ban the sale of real fur garments, with the exception of those worn as part of a religious faith.[57] In 2019, the state of California banned fur trapping, with a total ban on the sale of all new fur garments except those made of sheep, cow, and rabbit fur going into effect on January 1, 2023.[58]
Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and it exudes sweat, urine, and feces that may soil clothing. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. If not cleaned and refurbished, clothing becomes worn and loses its aesthetics and functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).
Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials such as these inevitably age.
Most clothing consists of cloth, however, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).
Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering clothing, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning, and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.
Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing. Excess lint or debris may end up on the clothing in between launderings. In such cases, a lint remover may be useful.
Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, usually they are hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases, or to present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance, when they are put on sale in stores.
Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as the black carpet beetle and clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored in cedar-lined closets or chests,[59] or placed in drawers or containers with materials having pest repellent properties, such as lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may deter insect pest damage to clothing materials as well.
A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants.[60] In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after six months of routine washing, 7 of 27 shirts still had levels in excess of 75 ppm (the safe limit for direct skin exposure).[61]
When the raw material – cloth – was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems, however. Other mending techniques include darning and invisible mending or upcycling through visible mending inspired in Japanese Sashiko.
Clothing salvage centre at the General Engineering Company (Canada) munitions factory during the Second World War
It is estimated that 80 billion to 150 billion garments are produced annually.[62] Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. Neutral colored or undyed cellulose fibers can be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Also, used clothing often is collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries. Globally, used clothes are worth $4 billion, with the U.S. as the leading exporter at $575 million.[63][64]
Synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals, are not renewable or biodegradable.[65]
Excess inventory of clothing is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value.[66]
EU member states imported €166 billion of clothes in 2018; 51% came from outside the EU (€84 billion).[67][68] EU member states exported €116 billion of clothes in 2018, including 77% to other EU member states.[69][70]
According to the World Trade Organization (WTO) report, the value of global clothing exports in 2022 reached US$790.1 billion, up 10.6% from 2021. China is the world’s largest clothing exporter, with a value of US$178.4 billion, accounting for 22.6% of the global market share. Next are Bangladesh (US$40.8 billion), Vietnam (US$39.8 billion), India (US$36.1 billion), and Turkey (US$29.7 billion).
In Vietnam, clothing exports continue to be one of the leading export sectors, contributing significantly to the export turnover and economic growth of the country.[71][72] According to the General Department of Customs of Vietnam, the value of Vietnam’s clothing exports in 2022 reached US$39.8 billion, up 14.2% from 2021.[73][74] Of which, clothing exports to the United States reached US$18.8 billion,[75][76] accounting for 47.3% of the market share; exports to the EU reached US$9.8 billion, accounting for 24.6% of the market share.[77]
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